[ C_filter = \fracI_out2f V_ripple = \frac0.05100 \times 1 \approx 500 \mu F ] (assuming 1V ripple).

: If dropper capacitor fails shorted, full mains voltage appears at output, destroying load and creating fire risk.

[ P_z = V_z \times I_out = 12 \times 0.05 = 0.6W ] → use 1W Zener. 4. Efficiency Analysis Efficiency ( \eta = \fracP_outP_in ). Input power measured via wattmeter simulation.

Parallel to C to discharge when unplugged: ( R_bleed = 1M\Omega ).

[ X_C = \frac12\pi f C ]

: At plug-in, if AC peak coincides with capacitor discharge, ( I_peak ) can exceed 50A, damaging rectifier diodes unless a series resistor (e.g., 10Ω) is added.